Water Supply Engineering Bc Punmia Pdf 266

In the study area, the TDS of groundwater ranges from 620 to 5755mg/L with an average of 958mg/L. The high levels of the TDS could be associated with the dissolution of the halite and gypsum in the carbonate plateau. The mean groundwater conductivity in the study area is 6.08m/s, ranging from 0.17 to 48.01m/s (Table 3 ). Groundwater-surface water interactions also play an important role in the groundwater quality of the study area. Groundwater-surface water interactions may trigger the transport of excess solutes and pollutants to groundwater, particularly during periods of heavy rainfall. Groundwater-surface water interactions result in a transfer of contaminants from the surface water to the groundwater (Braham 1977 ; Crews and Dettinger 1996 ; Arinzon et al. 2012 ). Groundwater-surface water interaction processes are favored by a high hydraulic gradient, a low hydraulic conductivity, and a high recharge rate (Richter and Allen 1973 ; Aksu and Aydin 2006 ; Aksu and Yilan 2013 ). A high hydraulic gradient at the study area (2.97 m/s) is a result of the more rapid infiltration rate (25.29 m/day) in the alluvial plain than the infiltration rate (6.96 m/day) in the calcareous structural plateau (Table 2 ).

In the study area, groundwater from six different geological units was sampled. The seven wells with the slowest groundwater flow rates and corresponding TDS values are located on the calcareous structural plateau. The dominant unit and recharge source of the groundwater in the study area is the calcareous structural plateau, especially the upland spring, which contributes to the largest recharge rates (Table 2 ). The Geochemical Unit 1 which includes the halite-gypsum aquifer is characterized by high TDS. The Geochemical Unit 2, which includes the geogenic spring and Limestone deposit, is characterized by low TDS. The Geochemical Unit 3, which includes the chert-grunty shale aquifer is characterized by moderate TDS. The Geochemical Unit 4, which includes the carbonate-rock gneiss aquifer is characterized by moderate TDS (Fig. 4).

Groundwater is the most economical, practical, and sustainable source of fresh water, and can even be used for human consumption (Chhabra 2005 ; Adriansen et al. 2009 ). In recent years, groundwater aquifers in the region have been tapped for agricultural and residential use. The Egyptian Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has made significant efforts to promote groundwater water use in the study area. To this end, 669 groundwater wells were built in the study area in 2009, and the total number of wells is projected to reach more than 30,000 in the future (Jadid & al. 2011 ). Groundwater depth profiles are sampled by the wells, and the output is stored in large reservoirs. The water is pumped via the canals to convey them to the agricultural land in the study area and to the cities and towns across the country.
The results of nitrate analysis of the collected samples from study area conducted by using standard methods (Mohammad et al. 2011 ) are as shown in Table 9. The results of the investigation indicate that high levels of sodium, magnesium, and nitrate (77,0 and 40 mg/L), phosphorus, and chloride (148,57 and 64 mg/L) concentrations are found in these areas. The water quality index value for nitrates ranges between 0.1 and 1.1. The results of this investigation indicate that the groundwater quality in the study area is at the moderate risk level (RSC value of 1.1). Groundwater quality can be modified by the application of in situ and ex situ techniques and restoration practices. These techniques are widely used to restore the polluted environments. A recent study has shown that the available and effective available groundwater recharging methods in the study area are with heterogeneous materials, which include treating, dewatering, and recharging, improving the groundwater recharge and quality. The most effective way is improving the infiltration, circulation, and recharge process in the land.
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